Post-Classical Developments: Cicero, Augustine, and Aquinas

Introduction

The period between Aristotle and the Renaissance represents a crucial transformation in political thought, marked by the integration of classical philosophy with emerging Christian theology. This evolution, spanning nearly 1500 years, produced fundamental concepts that continue to shape modern political discourse, from natural law to just war theory. Through the works of Cicero, Augustine, and Aquinas, we witness the development of sophisticated frameworks that bridge ancient Greek philosophy with medieval Christian thought.

Cicero and the Natural Law Tradition

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) stands as the crucial link between Greek political philosophy and Roman jurisprudence. His contribution centers on two fundamental concepts: natural law and republican virtue.

Natural Law and Universal Reason

Cicero's conception of natural law (lex naturalis) represents a significant advancement in political theory. Unlike his predecessors, he argued for a universal law accessible through reason:

"True law is right reason in agreement with nature; it is of universal application, unchanging and everlasting... We cannot be freed from its obligations by senate or people, and we need not look outside ourselves for an expounder or interpreter of it."

This formulation established three crucial principles:

1. Law's foundation in reason rather than mere convention
2. Universal applicability across cultures
3. Immutability of fundamental legal principles

Republican Virtue and Political Leadership

Cicero's vision of the ideal state synthesized Greek political theory with Roman practical experience. His concept of the perfect statesman (rector rei publicae) emphasized:

• Practical wisdom (prudentia)
• Justice (iustitia)
• Courage (fortitudo)
• Self-control (temperantia)

Augustine: Divine and Earthly Politics

Saint Augustine (354-430 CE) fundamentally reconceptualized political theory through a Christian lens, responding to the crisis of Roman decline.

The Two Cities

Augustine's most significant contribution lies in his theory of the two cities:

Political Authority and Justice

Augustine developed a complex theory of political authority that would influence medieval thought:

1. Political authority as remedy for sin
2. Limited legitimacy of earthly power
3. Necessity of justice for true peace
4. Role of church in moral guidance

Aquinas: Synthesizing Faith and Reason

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) achieved a remarkable synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy and Christian theology, producing a comprehensive political theory.

Natural Law and Divine Law

Aquinas's hierarchy of law represents a sophisticated integration of classical and Christian thought:

1. Eternal Law: God's rational governance of the universe
2. Natural Law: Human participation in eternal law through reason
3. Human Law: Specific applications of natural law
4. Divine Law: Revealed truth in scripture

Just War Theory

Aquinas developed the classical formulation of just war theory, establishing criteria that remain influential:

• Just cause
• Right intention
• Proper authority
• Proportionality
• Last resort

Legacy and Contemporary Relevance

The theoretical frameworks developed by these thinkers continue to influence modern political thought:

• Natural law theory in international law
• Just war doctrine in military ethics
• Church-state relations
• Concepts of political legitimacy
• Universal human rights

Critical Analysis

Enduring Contributions

1. Integration of reason and faith in political theory
2. Development of universal principles
3. Sophisticated theories of political authority
4. Framework for international law

Limitations and Critiques

1. Religious assumptions may limit secular application
2. Historical context bounds some arguments
3. Hierarchical worldview challenges modern equality
4. Tension between universal claims and particular traditions

Conclusion

The post-Aristotelian development of political thought through Cicero, Augustine, and Aquinas represents a crucial bridge between classical and modern political theory. Their synthesis of reason and faith, universal principles and particular traditions, continues to inform contemporary political discourse and provides essential frameworks for addressing current political challenges.

Further Reading

1. Coleman, Janet. "A History of Political Thought: From Ancient Greece to Early Christianity"
2. Copleston, Frederick. "A History of Philosophy, Vol. II: Medieval Philosophy"
3. Fortin, Ernest L. "Classical Christianity and the Political Order"
4. O'Donovan, Oliver. "From Irenaeus to Grotius: A Sourcebook in Christian Political Thought"
5. Rommen, Heinrich A. "The Natural Law: A Study in Legal and Social History and Philosophy"